Health Essays Binge Drinking Alcohol

Health Essays Binge Drinking Alcohol Binge Drinking Alcohol Question: With evidence for a new ‘culture of intoxication’, what are the current attitudes on binge drinking in UK society, and what are the possible causes for the current alcohol consumption patterns in contemporary society? Introduction The aim of this thesis is to answer the question: ‘With evidence for a new ‘culture of intoxication’, what are the current attitudes on binge drinking in UK society, and what are the possible causes for the current alcohol consumption patterns in contemporary society?’ This has been done by carrying out primary research in the form of a questionnaire in order to gain an insight into individuals’ drinking behaviours, and their attitudes towards binge drinking in western society. This piece of work primarily focuses on different drinking patterns and attitudes amongst different social groups in society, and reasons behind these differences. Although social policy is touched upon during the thesis, this is primarily to put the thoughts and behaviours of the sample group into context, and the primary focus is on sociological factors behind the participants’ reactions to alcohol and binge drinking. In recent years there has been an increasing public awareness and concern regarding binge drinking culture in the UK. Alcohol Concern (2003) stated that their research found that 40% of all male alcohol consumption takes the form of binge drinking sessions, while female binge drinking has increased significantly over the last decade. The 1995 Government report, ‘Sensible Drinking’ altered the recommended drinking allowance for males and females from a weekly amount to a daily amount, resulting from concern over the UK binge drinking culture and the worry that ‘weekly consumption can have little relation to single drinking episodes and may indeed mask short term episodes which†¦often correlate strongly with both medical and social harm’. (Sensible Drinking, 1995 cited in Alcohol Concern, 2003) Gofton (1990 cited in Measham Brain, 2005; 264) comments that socio economic restructuring during the 1980s has lead to changes in patterns of consumption, and the development of the British ‘lager lout’. Traditionally, drinking has been a male dominated, community based event but the decline in mixed age groups of male workers has meant that landlords cannot afford to rely on their traditional customer base and as a result drinking has developed into a pastime for both mixed and single sex groups; often age specific, participating in heavy sessional drinking during their free time at evenings and weekends. (Mintel, 1998 cited in Measham Brain, 2005; 265) Measham and Brain (2005) argue that there have been four key transformations that have led to the recommodification of alcohol and the significant rise in sessional drinking. Firstly, a much wider range of alcoholic beverages have been produced in the last decade, to suit all tastes and budgets. There has also been an introduction of high strength alcoholic products, as well as increased strength of traditional alcoholic beverages such as beer and wine, by up to 50%. Thirdly, there has been an increase in marketing and advertising of alcohol products to promote a culture of consumption and the need to purchase alcohol as a lifestyle marker and status symbol. The recent image overhaul of drinking establishments as trendy places, with drinks promotions to encourage greater alcohol consumption has also aided the transition towards a binge drinking culture. The Government Licensing Act and other related policies have aimed to promote civilised drinking by addressing drunkenness and anti social behaviour related to drinking with harsher penalties against offenders and by introducing more liberal 24 hour licensing laws with the aim that having extended hours will encourage a more relaxed approach towards drinking as people will not rush to drink as much as they can before the 11 pm curfew. Further sanctions have been placed on drinking establishments in an attempt to combat drink related disorder at the source by placing responsibility on licensed establishments to maintain order on their premises, to check for underage drinkers and to refuse to serve those who are already highly intoxicated. (Measham Brain, 2005; 263) A recent review of the licensing laws saw that overall, alcohol related crime rates had reduced as a more relaxed drinking climate has resulted from the introduction of 24 hour licensing laws. Culture Secretary, Andy Burnham commented, ‘Our main conclusion is that people are using the freedoms but people are not sufficiently using the considerable powers granted by the Act to tackle problems’. (Burnham, 2008 cited in Donaldson Vina, 2008) It would therefore appear that although a more positive image of alcohol consumption is being created in the UK, problems associated with binge drinking still exist and have not necessarily been addressed effectively through the change in licensing laws. Alcohol Concern (2003) has noted that people in the UK have yet to understand fully the dangers of binge drinking. The majority view it as having a good time, a social norm and part of growing up. In the 1993 survey, findings showed that 42% of those who regularly binge drank recognised that it was harmful to their health but only 24% males and 31% females were motivated to change their drinking habits to improve their health. Further to this the recent GENACIS study of gender and drinking found that the majority of individuals were willing to accept the negative experiences that sometimes occurred as a result of binge drinking in order to enjoy the mainly positive experiences of drunkenness. To summarise, ‘drinking and drugs can be seen as indicators of socio economic and cultural change in the relationship between work, leisure and consumption. Not only do young people form their identities through consumption but the psychology of consumption is centred on the search for gratification, integration and identity formation’. (Measham Brain, 2005; 276) As such, it is understandable if binge drinking has developed as the latest moral panic based on established ideas about binge drinking and social disorder. It is therefore the aim of this study to uncover the attitudes and beliefs of those in current UK society regarding binge drinking and related drinking habits. This piece of research into the attitudes and beliefs of people in the UK takes on an interpretive social perspective whereby studying a subject from a sociological perspective, it is important to consider that people are ‘active conscious beings’ (McNeill Chapman, 2005; 19) and it is necessary to take into account how people’s thoughts and beliefs influence their decisions of how they act as autonomous individuals interpreting the social world around them. Weber believed that external causes on their own are not adequate explanations for people’s actions and that it is necessary to understand individual’s motivations and how they interpret the situation in order to fully understand social actions. (McNeill Chapman, 2005; 19) As noted by Carey (2001), using the term binge drinking can cause some confusion as there are a number of definitions, largely based around amounts of alcohol consumed, which can cause the connotation of binge drinking to vary. For use in this survey, ‘binge drinking’ refers to excessive sessional consumption, which can lead to feelings of intoxication and drunkenness, whether intentional or unintentional. A qualitative definition of binge drinking has been used for this research as the disadvantages of allocating a certain quantitative unit of alcohol to the definition means that binge drinking becomes associated with levels of drinking dangerous to health and negative consequences. It also fails to address that, although binge drinking frequently or over long periods of time can lead to a greater likelihood of problems or negative consequences as a result, that this is not always the case and that many people enjoy and have experienced positive effects from occasional binge drinking. (Weschler et al, 2000 cited in Carey, 2001; 285) By allocating quantitative measures it fails to address that binge drinking and drunkenness are subjective as different amounts of alcohol affect individuals at different levels, and perceived behavioural control is a primary influencing factor where alcohol consumption is concerned. Research Methods For this study, a combination of descriptive and explanatory primary research was carried out, in order to create an overview of people’s attitudes towards binge drinking, and individual drinking habits, as well as attempting to produce an explanation as to why people binge drink and why this is perceived as a social problem in society. (McNeill Chapman, 2005; 7) A self completion questionnaire was decided upon as the most appropriate method of research as it was the most time and labour effective method of data collection. It is possible to obtain relatively extensive data from a large sample over a short time span using a questionnaire, which can increase the representativeness of the results making them more generalisable. (McNeill Chapman, 2005; 10) After deciding on the issue of binge drinking, a limited literature review was carried out to ensure the subject to be studied was viable, and also in order to identify common themes and key questions to ask candidates. Literature included journal articles by Measham and Brain (2005), Ajzen and Madden (1986), and Johnston and White (2002). A hypothesis was not developed as the research aimed to look for any general patterns in binge drinking behaviour and underlying reasons for the behaviour, and it was therefore felt that to create any specific hypotheses would create too much of a reductionist viewpoint from which to start the investigation. As previously mentioned, a limited literature review was carried out in order to identify key issues that had occurred in previous research to develop an idea of significant areas to be covered in the questionnaire, but overall the aim was to maintain a broad perspective based around an interpretive reflection of findings and attempt at a causal analysis. The aim of the survey was to cover a variety of age groups with different socio economic circumstances, and different gender groups, to see if this affected attitudes towards binge drinking. Approaching people directly and e-mailing copies of the questionnaire out to individuals developed a snowball sample whereby the questionnaire was passed on to others by initial participants and so the sample ‘snowballed’. Due to the vast number of people who use e-mail in contemporary society, and the convenience of using this medium of communication, it meant that e-mail was an especially viable method of contacting potential participants. (Sheehan Hoy, 1999 in Seale, 2004; 107) An initial draft questionnaire was developed using a variety of open and closed questions, primarily using closed questions to establish simple answers such as age, gender, income, etc with open questions primarily used as follow up to the closed questions to find out more detail and reason behind the answers selected in the closed questions. Some Likert scales were used to enable participants to express strength of opinion, which could be compared with other participants’ answers. The advantage of closed questions is that they could easily be pre coded to enter directly onto the SPSS software programme to be analysed, while it can be difficult to organise answers of open questions into categories for post coding and comparing participants’ answers. (Moser Kalton, 1971 in Seale, 2004; 83) While closed questions can verify their meaning by giving participants a selection of answers to choose from, and makes the survey easier for respondents to complete, it also results in a loss of spontaneity and detail in answers, and subjects may find that there is not always a category suitable for the answer they wish to give. In contrast, although open questions are more time consuming to complete, they allow for more detailed and unusual answers to be given, as well as reducing demand characteristics enabling participants to give more open and less influenced answers. (Bryman, 2004; 147) For this reason, combinations of the two sorts of questions were used in order to enhance the effectiveness of the survey. After a pilot run of the questionnaire that identified any faults, improvements were made and the final complete questionnaire was distributed amongst individuals with a range of ages. The disadvantage of snowball sampling is that it is much less systematic than other forms of sampling as it is based on the presumption that by selecting key individuals, other similar individuals will come forward who would make the sample representative, but this may not necessarily be the case. On this occasion, gathering a sample based on this premise proved successful as no one age category had a significantly higher number of participants than any other. The overall constituency of the sample consisted of 14.3% Under 18s, 24.7% 18-30s, 19.5% 31-45s, 22.1% 46-60s, and 19.5% 61 and over. In order to analyse the data the closed questions were pre coded and the open questions divided into common themes and post coded, then entered onto the SPSS software system in the form of figures and symbols which could be counted and added up, in order for the data to be analysed using a variety of statistical analysis techniques; primarily cross tabulation tables. (McNeill Chapman, 2005; 52) After producing cross tabulation tables from the data collected, it was found that many of the supporting Chi Square Test results produced values bigger than 0.05, suggesting no significant relationships between the variables. This could have occurred for a number of reasons; the sample may not have been big enough, or large tables with many cells may not have had enough cases in each cell to generalise from even where the differences in percentages on the table appear to have quite a large difference. In these cases, patterns could often be identified visually from looking at the tables based on the premise that a significant relationship could have been found if a larger sample had been used. However, caution in generalising these findings had to be taken based on the Chi Square results. Secondary data in the form of literature reviews and statistics collected by others were also used to develop ideas, and also to verify findings from the primary research; more than one source of data is used to cross check findings and verify their validity. (Bryman, 2004; 545) The reliability of the research is considerably higher than other methods that could have been used as questionnaires can be replicated with the exact questions and phrasing as many times as needed. However, with regard to the nature of some of the questions asked for this particular questionnaire about drinking habits which involve memory, reliability may be affected as people’s memories may not be accurate or may base their answers on their most recent drinking activity, so if asked another time may produce different answers. (Moser Kalton, 1971 in Seale, 2004; 81) The validity of this research could be considered to build a relatively realistic picture of what is being studied as the validity of people’s answers could be checked by comparing what they say their attitudes towards alcohol consumption is, with their actual reported drinking behaviours. A person is more likely to be open about their opinions and behaviours in writing than if asked to talk about them due to dissociation with the response. However, questionnaires can be affected by demand characteristics, particularly with closed questions, and people may pick what they believe to be the most socially acceptable rather than what they actually believe. (Moser Kalton, 1971 in Seale, 2004; 75) A further problem experienced with this questionnaire was that a number of questions were not completed on some questionnaires. It is not possible to know whether this is because participants accidentally missed the questions, or did not wish to disclose particular information. Further to this, some answers for questions such as asking people to select socially acceptable places to consume alcohol, it is possible that they selected those which reflected their own drinking habits, rather than what they thought the majority of society would view as socially acceptable. This may affect the validity of the final results. This appears to be an ethically sound piece of research as all the participants were informed of the purpose of the research and what the disclosed information would be used for. It was made clear that their participation was voluntary, and they were therefore giving informed consent. In an attempt to safeguard the privacy of research subjects, especially as the questionnaire required some personal information to be disclosed, all participants remained anonymous so that the information they disclosed remained confidential and could not be traced back to the individual. (McNeill Chapman, 2005; 13) It could be viewed as a concern that Under 18s were not asked to provide parental consent before completing the questionnaire, but due to the anonymity of the survey it was felt that it was unnecessary providing the participant themselves gave informed consent. One way the overall research process could have been improved would have been to carry out more in depth preparatory investigations such as focus groups to discuss the issue with individuals and gain a deeper understanding of their perspective on the situation, and what they thought the key issues related to binge drinking were. A focus group could have helped create clearer guidelines for research and possibly aided the development of a hypothesis to create a more focused piece of research. (McNeill Chapman, 2005; 32) Alternative or additional methods of research could have been used to investigate the binge drinking culture in the UK. One option could have been to carry out an ethnography. This would allow the researcher to witness participant behaviour in their natural setting, without demand characteristics affecting the situation. However, for the purposes of this investigation it would have affected the representativeness of the population as certain places attract certain types of people. Also, people will act differently in different situations and may be less likely to binge drink when at home than when out, but it would not be possible to observe this using an ethnography based in a single social setting. A further problem with ethnographies is that they can be the subjects of experimenter bias, as the experimenter must interpret the situation they are observing which is based on a subjective understanding of the situation. (Hammersley, 1991 in Seale, 2004; 243) A further alternative method could have been to interview participants rather than using a questionnaire. This method could have collected factual and attitudinal data in greater depth than a questionnaire. However, interviewing is more time consuming as it involves recording and transcribing the conversations before it can be coded and analysed. There is also the problem of interview bias, whereby the interviewee attempts to interpret what the interviewer wants from the situation based on their response to certain answers and the leading questions they ask. As mentioned before, the reduced anonymity of interviewing as a result of having to speak to someone face to face may affect the openness of the answers that participants give, and they may be less truthful or disclose less accurate information. (Bryman, 2004; 338) Overall, it was felt that a questionnaire was the most appropriate method of data collection for this piece of research, providing the most effective means of collecting relevant data. Culture of Consumption ‘Culture’ in this context is referring to the workings of society, from policy relating to the selling and consumption of alcohol, through to market influences and post traditional lifestyles and relationships which are leading to shared beliefs and values regarding binge drinking in contemporary society. Culture is important as it is through exposure to it within specific societal contexts that people develop their own thoughts and values regarding certain behaviours and what is socially acceptable. According to the relevant Chi Square Test results, none of the Charts 1-4 in Appendix A showed a significant or reliable relationship between the variables. However, observations can be made from all the charts produced. Chart 1 which demonstrates the frequency of alcohol consumption of women with different levels of disposable income, shows that regardless of disposable income levels, the majority of women for each income category reported consuming alcohol more than once a week; 80% of those with a disposable income of less than  £100 reported doing so, 100% of the  £101- £400 per week doing so, and 66.7% of the over  £400 per week. This could suggest that although disposable income may restrict the frequency of alcohol consumption to some extent, overall a culture has developed whereby alcohol consumption is viewed as an important aspect of socialising, relaxation and leisure time. Chart 3 showing frequency of alcohol consumption for the total sample with different levels of disposable income, also supports these findings. Interestingly, the  £101- £400 per week disposable income group appears to consume alcohol the most frequently. This could be as a result of having a higher disposable income to spend on alcohol, yet more leisure time than those who earn more – who possibly work longer hours in which to drink it. From observing Chart 2 which shows the frequency of alcohol consumption of women with different sources of income, it can be seen that although the Chi Square has not shown a significant relationship between the two variables it would appear that whether income is earned – suggesting employment participation – seems to influence the frequency of alcohol consumption in women. 92.3% of those women who received income from employment consumed alcohol more than once a week, compared with 61.1% of those with an unearned income. Reasons for this could be that women who work tend to drink more to reduce stress levels and as a method of relaxation, or it could be that those with an unearned income may have a lower disposable income to spend on alcohol, or that they feel the money is not theirs to spend on such luxuries so freely. Alcohol related attitudes and behaviours which have been discussed so far in this study highlight changes which have occurred over time, not in isolation, but against a backdrop of economic, social and cultural change in transition from an industrial to a post industrial consumer society, and a ‘culture of consumption’. (Measham Brain, 2005; 275) In relation to alcohol Measham and Brain (2005) argue that the economy in the UK relies on the exploitation of hedonism. The UK nighttime economy, which has developed extensively over the last decade, thrives on the promotion of consumer excess and intoxication. Daniel Bell (1975, cited in Measham Brain, 2005; 275) argues that in contemporary society individuals have lost the influence of the traditional sources of structuring such as occupation and family, and as a result new sources of collective identity have been formed, based around the market and in terms of alcohol, around the night time hedonistic culture of consumption; individuals seek to construct their identity through consumer products. This transition has facilitated greater opportunities for individuals to engage in hedonistic consumption, along with the decline in traditional norms and values that limited excessive consumption of alcohol. Cofield and Gofton (1994, cited in Measham Brain, 2005; 275) argue that amongst this hedonistic economy, drinking is no longer viewed only as a form of social integration, but more emphasis is placed on relaxation through the purchase of consumer products such as alcohol. This idea is supported by James (Cited in Wessely, 1998) who views contemporary society as a ‘low serotonin society’ and claims that individuals in society are more depressed than ever before, and that the increased pace and competition of life has led to family breakdown and higher stress levels. James concludes that people in contemporary society are self obsessed and overly concerned with their emotional well being; as a result of this people are looking for methods of relaxation and escapism, alcohol of which is one, which in turn has lead to social changes and a culture of consumption in the pursuit of happiness. (Wessely, 1998) This could be seen to support observations in chart 2 as those whose incomes come from paid employment drink more frequently, which is likely to be as a result of the stresses and strains of everyday life. Further to this it could be argued that the reason there is only a marginal difference between income and frequency of consumption is that it relates more to individual life circumstances and the stress levels in individuals’ lives rather than money available to spend on alcoholic products. Chart 4, which shows differences in preferred alcohol beverage by different disposable income groups shows that no significant relationship exists between disposable income and preferred alcoholic beverage. However, it can be noted that overall the most popular alcohol beverage was wine/champagne, with 52.8% of the total sample selecting this as their preferred beverage. A reason for this may be that there are such a wide range of wines available to suit all tastes and budgets. 100% of those who had a disposable income of more than  £400 per week chose wine/champagne as their preferred beverage. This may be because expensive wine/champagne can be bought as a symbol of status in society, particularly if consuming in public places such as restaurants or high status bars. It can also be noted that 100% of those who selected alcopops as their preferred beverage were in the  £100 per week or less disposable income category. This may be because generally alcopops are popular with younger drinkers, who are also likely to be those with a lower disposable income available to spend on alcohol. The popular demand for wine as an alcoholic beverage is supported by Duffy’s research (1981; 200) which found that the consumption of alcohol products almost doubled between 1963 1979, particularly wine and spirits. He also comments that a reason for this is that the relative price of drink has declined which has enabled consumers to purchase alcohol in larger quantities. The British Medical Association has argued that raising the price of alcohol beyond inflation levels would aid the control of the problem of binge drinking, and that this could be achieved by introducing minimum prices for each type of alcoholic drink. (Louth, 2008) However, it has been argued that increasing prices will not deter those who feel a ‘need’ for alcohol, just as increasing the prices of cigarettes has not stopped smokers buying them. It is an issue of personal demand over anything else. (Louth, 2008) Further to this, there are so many alcoholic drinks marketed by different producers that it would require an entirely new governmental system to control restrictions on the price and marketing of alcoholic beverages. Duffy (1981; 202) investigated whether advertising and/or taxation contribute in any way to official alcohol control policy. The income elasticities were found to be 0.8 for beer, 1.7 for spirits and 2.2 for wine – these figures show the elasticity of demand in relation to income. These estimates of elasticity appear to correspond with the findings of chart 4, which suggests that wine is one of the luxury products which people tend to consume more of, especially in the privacy of their own homes, particularly as their disposable income increases. The findings of Duffy’s research also suggest market demand for wine has increased at a greater rate than other alcoholic beverages, with consumption of wine increasing at a faster rate than the consumers’ relative income. (Duffy, 1981; 204) In 1970, on average individuals drank approximately seven litres a year of pure alcohol compared with an average of nine litres a year in contemporary society. Whereas the consumption of beer and spirits has remained relatively stable over a long period of time, the consumption of wine increased dramatically, representing over 80% of total alcohol consumption. This would also suggest that increases in alcohol consumption cannot be directly related to anti social behaviour as many of those middle class individuals, reflected in the findings relating to income and preferred alcoholic beverage, will not be seen creating disturbances and expressing anti social behaviour in public spaces. Many prefer to consume alcohol within the privacy of their own homes. (Louth, 2008) Yet Government statistics for middle class individuals who participate in habitual wine drinking show that they are consuming enough alcohol to cause considerable damage to their health, and government research has suggested this hidden drinking culture is also problematic in terms of putting pressure on the NHS through alcohol related hospital admissions, but largely ignored as it occurs behind closed doors. The Public Health Minister, Dawn Primarolo commented ‘Most of these (admissions) are not young people; they are ‘everyday’ drinkers who have drunk too much for too long.’ (Primarolo, 2007 cited in Boseley, 2007) Duffy also found that the estimated elasticities for advertising of all alcoholic beverages were low, especially for wine. The assumption here is that there are so many adverts for other alcohol products competing against each other and against other products in general, that they cancel each other out and have relatively little impact upon the consumer. However, their continuous presence is likely to contribute to the popular cultural belief of alcohol consumption as an integral part of social life in western society. (Duffy, 1981; 205) It can also be noted that the shots category was not selected by anyone as a preferred beverage and as such is not shown on the chart. However, this may be because shots are not drunk as a primary beverage on a night out but as a supplement, or as a chaser, in order to catalyse the development into a state of drunkenness. Measham and Brain’s research (2005) found that although shots and shooters were not considered a primary product to consume on a night out drinking, they were becoming an established part of a night out binge drinking. They were mainly drunk as a cheap addition to a night’s alcohol consumption with 40-60% of participants in the study reporting consuming at least one shot on a night out. (Measham Brain, 2005; 270) The main reasons found for consumers purchasing shots were to quicken the process of achieving drunkenness, and as a cheap way of making an inexpensive gesture towards friends by buying them shots too – they are cheaper than a typical round of drinks for those who cannot afford to pay out more. The increasing popularity of ‘doing’ shots has created concerns regarding issues of responsible drinking patterns. By consuming shots alongside long drinks it increases the speed and quantity of alcohol consumed as shots tend to be ‘downed in one’ as well as encouraging people to mix their drinks, which can heighten the state of intoxication. Drinking patterns such as these can be seen to hav

Two Perspectives of Organization Theory Essay -- Business Management

Organization theory is the body of knowledge related to the examination and analysis of both the internal workings of organizations and their interactions with their external environments. This knowledge is generated either through practical experience or through scientific inquiry. Organization theory is also concerned with applying this knowledge to designing and managing organizations. Contrary to what the term â€Å"organization theory† might suggest, the literature of this field of study teems with a variety of organization theories. Each theory offers a perspective for understanding organizations. The wealth of perspectives in organization theory stems from the diverse, complex, and dynamic nature of organizations and the wide range of academic disciplines underlying the field of organization theory. For any field of study as diverse as organization theory, controversies are bound to occur. Such a clash of perspectives occurred when Herbert Simon published â€Å"The Pro verbs of Public Administration†---a biting criticism of classical organization theory as exemplified by the work of Luther Gulick. I shall first summarize Gulick’s and Simon’s central ideas about organizations, laying the ground to compare and contrast their approaches. Then I will consider Simon’s critique of Gulick, and to be fair to Gulick, we shall also examine arguments from an article written in Gulick’s defense by Thomas Hammond. In the course of the discussion of the Gulick-Simon debate, I will take the liberty to interpose my comments on the arguments put forth. My global comments on this debate are collected toward the end of this think piece. Let us first consider Gulick’s perspective on organizations. Gulick’s work on organization theory belongs t... ...e possibility for cross-fertilization between the existing paradigms exists. Perhaps, the best that can be done is to establish frameworks in which multiple paradigms provide different viewpoints from which to examine the complexities of organizations. Works Cited Gulick, Luther H. 1937. â€Å"Notes on the Theory of Organization† in Luther Gulick and Lyndall Urwick (eds.), Papers on the Science of Administration, 1–45. New York: Institute of Public Administration, Columbia University. Simon, Herbert A. 1946. â€Å"The proverbs of Administration,† Public Administration Review 6, 53–67. Simon, Herbert A. 1947. Administrative Behavior. Fourth edition 1997. New York: The Free Press. Hammond, Thomas H. 1990. â€Å"In Defence of Luther Gulick’s ‘Notes on the Theory of Organization.’† Public Administration 68, 143–173.

Near Death Experiences :: essays research papers fc

There are many phenomena present in today’s world concerning both life and death. An extraordinary incorporation of these prominent values is a Near Death Experience (NDE). Near Death Experiences empower and affect the psyche of many, changing their lives forever and altering their perception of death. Many questions arise from this particular topic simply because you have to experience it to fully understand its meaning. Questions such as, What is it, What happens, and how do they occur are familiar to experts in this field or to the people who have first hand experience.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Although the meaning of a Near Death Experience is different to the individual, it is described to be a personal encounter with death, later being brought back to life. The man responsible for triggering the later studies of this perplexing subject is Dr. Raymond Moody. During the year of 1975, he published a book, Life After Life, explaining his newfound concept of a Near Death Experience. He heard about a specific case study that extremely intrigued him. “As a student, Raymond Moody heard about the experience of a psychiatrist who had ‘died’ from double pneumonia only recovering after his doctor had pronounced him dead to his family.'; This remarkable case stunned Raymond Moody, and after publishing his book, this case intrigued society. This particular psychiatrist went on to write about his Near Death Experience, but Dr. Moody was the first to research this unknown topic.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Although Dr. Moody set a precedence in studying this subject, the event that triggered his studies was not the first Near Death Experience to be documented. Elisabeth Kubler-Ross, also a psychiatrist, worked with survivors from the Nazi concentration camps. Because of her patients, she had become completely convinced that something unexpected happens close to death. Her book, Death and Dying, much more general than Dr. Moody’s work, contains the first real exploration of a NDE by a doctor.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Obviously, Near Death Experiences occur near an individual’s time of death. The cause of an individual’s time of death can come from virtually anything, but, usually results from some sort of accident. “Accidents come out of the blue. They can happen to anyone and there’s no time to prepare for them.'; Because accidents may occur at any time, so may a Near Death Experience. Thus meaning that, only knowledge of the subject matter can reduce fear and gain preparation.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Each individual may experience different emotions, visions, and encounters, but generally, the first few stages of Near Death Experiences are common throughout each case.

The Lesson :: Analysis, Toni Cade Bambara

Throughout history knowledge, culture and information has been passed down within communities. Life lesson were often taught by older, wiser or formally educated people within the community. This idea still holds true today, especially in low-income communities as illustrated in the short story â€Å"The Lesson† by Toni Cade Bambara. I am led to believe that story took place in a low-income community in the early to mid-sixties as African-American families moved to find better opportunities, when extended families moved north as groups and then spreading out into their respective community (507). Miss Moore, who had obtained a college education, assumed this role within her community by saying â€Å"it was only right that she should take responsibility for the young one’s education† (507). Initially the lesson of the day was the value of money, but quickly evolved into several different lessons for the children in attendance that day. Miss Moore begins her lesson by planting a seed in the minds of the children in the form of small talk such as; what things cost, how much their parents made, how much they spent on rent and how money was not divided up right in this country (508). This got the children thinking about the money that ordinary people within their community spent on everyday survival. Their field trip brings them to a fancy Fifth Avenue toy store â€Å"F.A.O Schwartz† (512), where they admire toys form the window. The children begin to notice the outlandish prices that the toys were being sold for, which further waters the seed embedded in their little minds earlier. Their eyes settled on a sailboat displayed in the window. Its outrageous price tag read, one thousand one hundred ninety-five dollars (510). Shocked and taken back they could not believe that anyone would pay that much money to entertain a child, one child immediately asked, â€Å"This boat for Kid’s, Miss Moore?† (510 ). This growing seed in their minds sparks the question of, why some people can afford such expensive toys and not others, as they enter the store. As they finish in the toy store and get home, Miss Moore prods the children to see if they had grasped the lesson as she intended. Sugar, one of the children spoke and said â€Å"You know, Miss Moore, I don’t think all of us here put together eat in a year what that sailboat costs† (512). Miss Moore was elated to find that the message of social inequality had been relayed to at least one of the children.

CHAPTER 1 : THE PROBLEM AND ITS BACKGROUND Essay

CHAPTER 1 : THE PROBLEM AND ITS BACKGROUND INTRODUCTION Not all people are given the chance to have a quality education especially in the Philippines because it is now complicated. That’s why having the chance to study and choosing the course should not be compared to something like for an example buying a dress for a special occasion and when realization comes into your mind that you don’t want it, you’ll return it or maybe get your money back. No, this isn’t right, because in college life, you have to treat every second as an important detail of your life. You should not waste every moment in it. So choosing the course which you think fits your capabilities is very important. Studying a specific course in college is not only about paying the fees rather the most important things here are the time and effort spent. Money, time and effort are the most precious things in one’s life and once it is used or spent, it’s hard to gain again or worst you may never have it at all. So the time these are wasted for nothing, for sure the blame for this mistake will be felt truly. When looking at the profile of those students who are working and at the same time is studying, you would notice that they never dare wasting their time. For them, every second counts. Make an observation and you will find out that almost all of the working students are working too hard to finish their studies. For them, wasting their effort, time and money is such a big mistake. BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY Student jobs have become a sort of trend among students around the world, who want to work while they are studying. In short, the term that suits this trend is ‘Earn and Learn’ policy. Other reason why student jobs are popular among students is they help to cope up with the constant increase in tuition fees, and a way to afford further educations. The problem has been developed with the question as to how the corresponding workloads and required working hours of working students affect their academic performance at Polytechnic University of the Philippines. As a researcher, the main purpose of the study is to know the factors that affect the academic performance of working students. In addition, this paper aims to provide encouragement and motivation to all students especially those who are financially distressed to pursue and finish a college degree in order to be competitive in the future and be able to realize their goals and aspirations. It may also provide learning experiences and information to other students who are not working. In order to accomplish our objectives, we adopted several methodologies in obtaining data and information such as conducting surveys by providing questionnaires to our subjects, getting information in the internet and conducting interviews personally and honestly with our target subjects to get assurance that our data, information and values gathered were correct and accurate. IMPORTANCE OF THE STUDY These studies will be beneficial to the following: The Students. Because of this study, the students will be able to know the profile of the working students and they will realize the truth about what they are going through. By this process, the working students will serve as inspirations to their fellow students especially to those who are almost losing their hopes and eagerness to pursue their studies. The Mentors. This study also helps the teachers to be able to easily notice those students who were really dedicated to their studies and who were not wasting their time and money on their universities. These will also give them enough knowledge on what the working students are going through when they are studying while working. They also know those students who deserved to be given considerations. The Parents. By this study, the parents will be able to know the advantage of working while studying. And because of these, they will also realize the reason why working students are doing such, especially if their sons or daughters are one of those students who are already working or planning to have a job while studying. To the Future Researchers. This study will help them as guide in conducting their own research. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM The objective of studying this matter is to know the profile of the working students and the implication on the class standing. Specifically, they need to answer these following questions: 1. What was the working students are going through while they are studying and at the same time working? 2. What are the statuses of the working students when it comes to their grades and their participation in class? SCOPE AND LIMITATION OF THE STUDY This research is concerned on the profile of the working students based from their academic standing. This covers the engineering students of the Polytechnic University of the Philippines. The profile of the working students will be distinguished by the aid of the questionnaires prepared by the researcher. In this research we can clearly notice the academic standing of the working students definitely by the help of the surveys conducted by the researcher.

Final Exam Guide Essay

Question 1: How would you define successful leadership? What standard do you apply when evaluating leadership success? Is it possible to predict success based on organizational cultures or other factors? Provide examples to support your answer. Solution: Successful leadership is the ability to channel and coordinate the energy of the group to attain the desired goals of the business. It is the capacity to motivate and inspire followers to go beyond the distance of their perceived limitations, to rise to the challenges of the task at hand, and to seek out innovative and novel solutions. In a word, success leadership is empowering. As Eleanor Roosevelt once said, â€Å"A good leader inspires people to have confidence in the leader; a great leader inspires people to have confidence in themselves.† A successful leadership can be evaluated by the following standards: a) Example – A successful leader leads by example, which is the key to authentic leadership. This is demonstrated by working hard, making difficult decisions, taking risks, and personal sacrifices. b) Integrity – There are no shortcuts to success. A successful leader is honest, dependable and uncompromising on his or her work and business ethics. c) Solid goals – A successful leader has solid goals and direction, which are communicated to the team. The leader makes the team identify and take ownership of the business’s goals in order to motivate them to achieve these goals. d) Knowledge – A leader is equipped with knowledge and skills necessary for the enterprise. The leader leverages the team’s best chance of success by knowing and understanding the obstacles, competition and risks present in an endeavor. e) Autonomous – A successful leader provides for autonomy by empowering the members to think, innovate and own the solution to a problem. f) High Expectations – A successful leader expects a high level of excellence from the team. Expectations create results; people want to proud of their work. However, high expectation does not mean perfection. Rather, it is learning through experience and errors, and being accountable for one’s mistakes. g) Humility – A successful leader knows the value of  teamwork and gives credit where it is due. Leadership is not about personalities; it is about directing the group’s efforts toward the completion of an endeavor. h) Execution – A successful leader has the discipline to get things done. He or she can bridge the gap between theory and actual execution of a plan. Nagavara Ramarao Narayana Murthy is an Indian businessman and co-founder of Infosys, which was founded in 1981. Mr. Murthy served as CEO of Infosys from 1982 to 2002, and as chairman from 2002 to 2011. He stepped down from the board in 2011, and became Chairman Emeritus. Mr. Murthy embodies the ideals of a successful leadership. He is a top leader, an institution builder, and an IT legend. He empowered his executives, management team and workers. He encouraged and nurtured leadership qualities in the organization through mentoring and training. He institutionalized ethical values of honesty and integrity throughout the organization. Question 2: What methods exist to develop leaders in an organization? What methods does your organization use? Why? Have any methods been counterproductive? In what ways? Solution: There are various approaches to leadership development in an organization that will be briefly describes as follows: 1) Formal Development Programs – In its basic format, a formal program consists of a classroom seminar covering basic theories and principles of leadership. It can be in the form of a tailored development program fitted to serve the needs of the specific organization. It can also be open-enrollment programs offered by private and academic institutions. 2) 3600 Feedback – This is also known as a multi-source feedback, and a multi-rater feedback. This method involves systematically collecting assessments of a person’s performance from different sources, which typically consists of supervisors, peers, subordinates, customers, and other stakeholders. 3) Executive Coaching – This method is defined as a practical, goal-oriented form of personal and one-on-one learning. Coaching is usually used to improve individual performance, enhance a career, o r work through organizational issues. 4) Job Assignments – This method works under the assumption that experience is the best teacher. This method trains would-be leaders in an organization by giving them a variety of job assignments that will expose them to different work environments; hence, it allows them to adapt, and become better  strategic thinkers. 5) Mentoring – Mentoring programs typically pair a senior and a junior manager, but pairing can also occur between peers. Mentoring involves advising and passing on lessons learned from the senior to the junior partner. 6) Networking – Some organizations include development activities designed to foster broader individual networks for better connection with partners in a global community. Leaders are expected to know not only the in and out of the organization, but also know who in terms of problem-solving resources. 7) Reflection – Introspection and reflection can foster self-understanding and understanding from lessons learned from exper ience. In leadership development, reflection can be used to uncover a person’s hidden goals, talents, and values, as well as their impact on a person’s work. 8) Action Learning – This is a project-based learning method characterized by a continuous process of learning and reflection, aided by colleagues, and with an emphasis on getting things done. This method connects individual development to the process of helping organizations respond to major business problems. 9) Outdoor Challenges – This is a team-building experience in an outdoor or wilderness setting, designed to overcome risk-taking fears, and to promote teamwork and leadership skills. Our organization uses formal programs to develop leaders. Recognizing that a classroom-based learning, while easy and flexible, is limited in the actual transfer of competencies, the formal program serves as a shell under which various development methods are incorporated. Hence, the formal program is structured by combining theoretical learning and problem-based learning. Then, a 360-degree feedback is given to each participant, which serves as a basis for an in-depth reflection. For most people, the 360-degree feedback is difficult to handle for several reasons. The primary reason is an inherent resistance to change. Another reason is the overwhelming amount of data, which can be complex, inconsistent, and difficult to interpret and translate into an action or behavior that can correct a given problem. Mere knowledge and acceptance of one’s developmental needs are not enough to bring about change. There is a need for follow-up guidance and support. That is why participants are also given short-term coaching to identify specific areas of concern and how to resolve these concerns. Question 3: In The Art and Science of Leadership, Nahavandi writes about the dark side of power. Provide an example. What organizational factors contributed to the leader’s behavior? What were consequences of the behavior? Solution: Nahavandi cites corruption as the dark side of power. An example of a scandal that shocked the corporate world was the case of the German engineering giant Siemens in 2006. A regulatory investigation revealed that hundreds of employees, spearheaded by Siemens’ top executives, had been siphoning millions of Euros into bogus deals to pay massive bribes to government officials and business contacts to win contracts in Russia and Nigeria. A trial judge described the scandal as a blatant disregard of business ethics and a systematic practice of organized irresponsibility that was implicitly condoned by management. The scandal resulted to the departure of Siemens top executives, including then CEO Klaus Kleinfield, who was later convicted of corruption, placed on probation for 2 years, and fined 160,000 Euro for his complicity. Hans-Werner Hartmann, who was the accounting head in the company’s telecommunications arm, was also placed on probation for 18 months and fined 40,000 Euro. The scandal cost Siemens around 2.5 billion Euro to pay for fines, reparations and damages. The firm was also barred from dealings with certain clients. The cost to Siemens’ employees, who had to endure intense public scrutiny and shame, is difficult to quantify. Organizational factors that contributed to a culture of bribery within Siemens were identified as follows: an aggressive growth strategy that compelled managers to resort to bribes in order to meet performance targets; a complex and matrix-like organizational structure that allowed divisions to operate independently, with no established checks and balances; poor accounting processes; a corporate culture openly tolerant of bribes. It should be noted that bribes were tax-deductible, and were the norms, not the exceptions, in German business practice at that time. Question 4: What obstacles exist for leaders involved in participatory management? What methods may a leader employ to overcome these obstacles? Solution: Participative management, also known as employee involvement and empowerment, encourages the participation of all the organization’s stakeholders in the analysis of problems, development of strategies, and implementation of solutions. While participative management seems like a utopian ideal, leaders face many obstacles in its effective implementation. One obstacle is encouraging the participation of employees in the managerial process of planning and making decisions. Employees may not fully participate due to lack of competencies, lack of confidence, and fear of rejection. Another reason is the employee’s lack of trust that his or her contributions will be valued. The presence of tension and rivalry among employees are also barriers to effective communication, and ability to work together. Leaders can address these issues by being sincere in their desire to implement participative management. Leaders should strengthen communication within the workplace, and initiate team-building activities to strengthen bonds between peers, and between employees and management. Training programs should also be initiated to develop employees’ competencies, leadership skills and self-confidence. Once employees are fully committed to engage in participative management, other obstacles arise, which includes the amplification of the complexity of the organization’s activities and the growing volume of information that managerial decisions are based on. These can lead to difficulty in getting things done, and slow response time to issues that need fast reactions and actions. Leaders cannot solve these obstacles alone; these require the concerted effort of the entire organization. However, leaders can take the lead in delegating responsibilities to reduce the hierarchic levels in the organization, and to decentralized authority so that the organization can respond to issues quickly and efficiently. Leaders can also establish quality circles, which are composed of around 8 to 10 employees along with the supervisor who share areas of responsibility among themselves. These circles can meet regularly to discuss problems in their respective areas and  brainstorm for solutions, which they can later present to the entire organization as a fully developed action plan. In this way, the complexity of participative management is simplified. Another obstacle to participative management concerns security issues. It is harder to ensure confidential information stays within the organization when more people are involved in managerial decisions. This confidential information can include patents, and product research and development. Leaders can address this obstacle by motivating employees to be accountable for their actions and to stay committed to the company by valuing their contributions. Question 5: What are some reasons employees and managers resist change? As a leader, what methods would you use to help employees and managers adapt to change? Solution: Adaptability to change is a prerequisite to become successful in the modern world characterized by increasing global awareness and fast turnover of technology. Organizations must respond to change and be willing to change to retain their competitive edge and relevance. However, implementing organizational changes are daunting for leaders, not least because most employees and managers resist change. The common reasons why employees resist change are the following: change promotes fear, insecurity and uncertainty, difference in perception and lack of understanding, reaction against the way change is presented, cynicism and lack of trust, and threats to vested interest. In order to overcome resistance to change, leaders can involve workers in the change process by openly communicating about the need for change, providing consultation to alleviate employees’ fears, and being sensitive to employees’ concerns. In order to implement change, leaders must decide on the method they will use to overcome resistance to change, and modify behavior. The three-step approach is an example of such a method; it is characterized by three basic stages: unfreezing, changing, and refreezing. 1) Unfreezing: Most people prefer to maintain the status quo, which is  associated with stability, rather than confronting the need for change. The starting stage, therefore, of a change process must involve unfreezing old behaviors, processes, and structures. This stage develops an awareness of the need for change, and the forces that supports and resists change. Awareness is facilitated with one-on-one discussions, presentations to groups, memos, reports, company newsletter, seminars, and demonstrations. These activities are designed to educate employees about the deficiencies of the current set-up and the benefits of the replacement. 2) Changing: This stage focuses on learning new behaviors, and implementing the change. Change is facilitated when employees become uncomfortable with the identified deficiencies of the old system, and are presented with new behaviors, role models, and support structures. 3) Refreezing: This stage focuses on reinforcing new behaviors, usually done by positive results, public recognition, and rewards.

Slavery Before And After The Civil War

In this chapter it tells a story about slavery before and after the Civil War. It explains the United States provision of slavery and how some people were misled on who ended slavery, how it was Abraham Lincoln and not John brown who was hung later in 1859 for his crimes. It later goes into graphic detail of how slaves were kept into slavery by whipping and separating families. It sort of reminds of the movie 12 years a slave I would recommend it. It’s sad but true story of how black people were treated back then.John Brown was hung by the state of Virginia with the approval of the national government for his failed plan to take hold of the federal arsenal. The US Government would not accept an end to slavery by mutiny, but only under circumstances controlled by whites, and only when essential by radical and profitable needs of the North. It was Abraham Lincoln who was able to do just that by putting together the interests of the wealthy and interests of the blacks.What came n ext was that Lincoln was elected there was an extensive series of procedure clashes between the South and North. The rattle was not over the issue of slavery, but that the South saw Lincoln and the Republicans as a risk to their pleasant way of life. So when Lincoln was elected ultimately 11 states split from the Union. The Association was formed thus beginning the Civil War. In an effort to end the war, in September 1862, Lincoln announced his primary Emancipation Proclamation.This was a military move, giving the South 4 months to stop protesting or else their slaves would be freed, if they complied slavery would be unharmed in the states that came over to the North. The Proclamation also opened up the Union army to the blacks. On January 1, 1863, urging antislavery forces. Later in April 1864 Senate had approved the Thirteenth Amendment, declaring an end to slavery, and in January 1865, the House of Congresses followed. The Fourteenth Amendment declared that â€Å"all persons bor n or naturalize in the United States† were citizens.This restricted states’ rights regarding racial equality. The Fifteenth Amendment said: â€Å"The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude. † This opened the door for senate to pass laws making it a crime to deprive African Americans of their rights, like allowing blacks to enter into contracts and buy homes and what not. With these laws African Americans formed political organizations.They were nevertheless held back for several years by Andrew Johnson, who became president while serving as Vice President under Lincoln when Lincoln was killed at the end of the war. Johnson banned bills that helped Blacks and allowed states to return the Union without promising equal rights for blacks. Johnsons’ actions did not sit well with Senators and Congressmen. Later in 1868, Congr ess nearly succeeded in accusing Johnson but was one vote short in the Senate. Later that year, Republican contender Ulysses Grant would win the presidential election by 300,000 votes over Johnson.This again opened up doors for blacks, were being elected into southern state legislatures and the US Senate & Congress. Black women were also helping to rebuild the postwar south; black children were going to school. Even though it looked like Negroes were on their way to becoming equal there was still a lot of hostility and dependency on whites for work and supplies. The south used economic power to form the Ku Klux Klan (known as KKK) and other extremist groups. It wasn’t long until things were almost back to where it started.